5- The reigns of Fernando VII and Isabel II

Fernando VII returns to the throne , he declared the constitution illegal and become an absolute monarch.

The heir to the throne was supposed to be Fernando’s brother, Carlos, but Fernando VII instead chose his eldest daughter, Isabel. Isabel was only three years old when her father died in 1833, so her mother, María Cristina, and General Espartero ruled as regents until Isabel came to the throne at the age of 13 as Isabel II.

The beginning of the regency period was marked by civil wars known as the Carlist Wars. There were fights between two sides:

• the supporters of the regent queen, María Cristina,
• and supporters of the late king’s brother, Carlos.

Those supporting Carlos were called Carlists and were in favour of an absolute monarchy.

During Isabel II’s reign, Spain became a parliamentary monarchy. However, political instability and conflict led to her exile in 1868.

6-The labour movement.

Conditions for the working class in the 1800s were very bad. Workers in rural areas were unemployed for part of the year and industrial workers were also badly paid and worked long hours in dangerous conditions.

Many workers started organising themselves into associations (unions) to demand improvements in their wages and working conditions.

3-The War of Independence

The French invasion caused an uprising in Madrid on 2 May 1808 and the War of Independence began. However, it was not only a war against France but also a civil war in Spain about who the monarch should be.

With the help of the British, the French were defeated and, in 1814, Napoleon recognised Fernando as King of Spain. 

This meant the return of absolutism.

4-The Constitution of 1812

Cádiz was the only place that was not under French rule and delegates met there to draw up a Spanish constitution, which was signed in 1812. It was the most liberal constitution of its time and the first in Spain. The Constitution established:

• Freedom of the press
• Equality for all
• Voting rights for all men over 18
• Freedom of expression
• National sovereignty
• A constitutional monarchy

However, it was abolished in 1814 when Fernando VII came to the throne.

Modern Spain 

1-Introduction

The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in 1760 and spread across Europe during the first part of the 19th century. Factories, thanks to new machinery and inventions, were built mostly in cities. People began to migrate from rural areas to cities to look for work.

Politically, there was also a huge change. The French Revolution meant the end of absolutism in France, the end of unlimited powers for the king and the beginning of new liberal ideas.

2-Revolution and changes in Spain

Carlos IV came to the Spanish throne in 1788 just as the French Revolution was beginning.

Relations between Spain and France, distant up until now, improved and in 1807 the Spanish Prime Minister, Manuel Godoy, signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau with Napoleon Bonaparte. They agreed to invade Portugal and divide it between each other. However, France used this alliance to achieve another objective – the invasion of Spain.

Carlos’ son, Fernando led the Mutiny of Aranjuez in 1808 against Godoy. It forced Carlos IV to abdicate in favour of his son who became King Fernando VII. Napoleon then forced Fernando to abdicate and put his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the throne of Spain.

La guerra de la independencia 

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4-Food chains and food webs
Organisms need energy to grow and reproduce. Some organisms, such as plants, make their own food, but most feed on other organisms and this creates a interdependence of species that creates the  Food chains , that are made up of
three levels: producers, consumers and decomposers. 

Several food chains interconnected forms a Food web

Levels of a food chain

1-Producers are the base of food chains. Plants and some protists are producers.

2-Consumers feed on other living things. There are three types of consumers:

-Primary consumers, such as grasshoppers or giraffes, feed on plants. Herbivores are primary consumers.

-Secondary consumers, such as snakes, feed on primary consumers.Carnivores and omnivores are secondary consumers. They can be both predators and prey.

3-Decomposers feed on dead organic matter. Most decomposers are fungi and bacteria.

 Analiza sintácticamente estas oraciones

1)El tabaco perjudica la salud.
2)Mi prima alquiló un apartamento grande y silencioso a una amiga.
3)Ellas están muy contentas en el colegio
4)El profesor no les devolvió el balón a los niños.
5) Mi madre parece muy joven.
6)Juan y María jugaron un partido de tenis en el patio del colegio.
7) Todos están preparados para la carrera.
8)Desearía tener una casa en la playa .

3- Types of Ecosystems

There are two main  types of ecosystems: terrestrial ecosystems and aquatic ecosystems. 

3.1.Terrestrial Ecosystems

Terrestrial ecosystems are found across the different continents of the Earth. There are four main types.

A) Forests

Forest ecosystems  includes several types of forests, one of the most important is tropical rainforest.

Tropical rainforests are the most diverse ecosystems on land. They are found around the world at equatorial latitudes. The warm wet climate and 12 hours of sunshine encourages great biodiversity.

Trees can reach about 50 or 60 metres tall and are adapted to survive in hot temperatures and strong winds.

Birds, mammals, insects, amphibians and reptiles all live here

B) Deserts

They are made up of dunes of sand and  the lack of water.They can be found throughout the world in cold or hot environments.  Places like the Sahara Desert are frequently hot, but places like the Gobi Desert can face extremely low temperatures.

C) Grasslands

Grasslands ecosystem include prairies, steppes, and savannahs. They can exist in warm and colder regions, like the Siberian steppe. Large amounts of grass covers the area, there are few trees that are spread out across the ecosystem. Flowering plants are interspersed across the grassland.

D) Tundra

This ecosystem has low temperatures and no light for half the year. This means that trees and bushes struggle to grow. The most common plants are mosses, lichens and some grasses. 

3.2.Aquatic Ecosystems

They can be broken into two main categories: 

A) Marine ecosystems 

Marine ecosystems have a high level of salt and comprise the many oceans of the world and other bodies of saltwater. They are the most abundant ecosystems found in the world.

B) Freshwater ecosystems.

Freshwater ecosystems have a very low salt content compared to the marine ecosystem. They are generally represented as lakes, ponds, rivers, and anywhere else one might find freshwater sources.

 1- Ecosystems